Animation of making of CMOS Microchip

Click below to view the fantastic animation of making of microchip:

Animation

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How the Matrix Keypad works with a Micro controller?

Fig: Matrix Keypad when there is no Button press

The matrix is controlled by a micro-controller.
]For the above 16-button 4x4 matrix, 8 pins of the micro controller will be used.
The first 4 pins will be OUTPUTS and will be connected to the COLUMN wires, while the other 4 pins will be INPUTS and will be connected to the ROW wires.
The OUTPUTS of the micro-controller will NOT all have power at the same time.
The outputs will go high one by one in cycle.

During this time, it will also monitor the inputs for a signal. As long as all inputs are LOW , the Micro-controller will take no action.
Now, suppose that the operator presses the button 3C.

Please see the below image.

Fig: Button 3C of the Matrix Keypad is pressed

This button has connect the matrix col C, with the matrix row 3.
When the output C of the micro-controller becomes HIGH, the signal arrives also at the input 3 of the micro-controller, through the pressed button.
The micro-controller check the 4 inputs and detects that when the specific output (C) is high, there is a HIGH signal at the input 3.
So, this means that the input C3 is pressed!

OSI Reference Model

Fig: OSI Reference Model

The OSI reference model consists of seven layers that build from the wire (Physical) to the software (Application).

How Radar works?

Fig: How Radar Works?

As the radar antenna turns, it emits extremely short bursts of radio waves, called pulses. Each pulse lasts about 0.00000157 seconds , with a 0.00099843-second  "listening period" in between.
The transmitted radio waves move through the atmosphere at about the speed of light.

By recording the direction in which the antenna was pointed, the direction of the target is known as well. Generally, the better the target is at reflecting radio waves , the stronger the reflected radio waves, or echo, will be.

This information is observed within the approximately 0.001-second listening period with the process repeated up to 1,300 times per second.
By keeping track of the time it takes the radio waves to leave the antenna, hit the target, and return to the antenna, the radar can calculate the distance to the target.

(Courtesy: http://www.srh.noaa.gov)

How Power Supply Works?

Fig: How Power Supply works.

How to design a DC Power supply?
The first step of Power supply Design is Stepping Down the AC current into a lower voltage.
This is done by a Step Down Transformer.
Now we need to remove the Alternating Waves and make a DC Current from it.
For this purpose we will use a Bridge rectifier, in which the AC will be converted into DC.
Even if it is rectified, there will be some fluctuations in the output.
This can be removed by connecting a Capacitor Parallel, as it will not pass the DC and pass only the AC Current.
Thus the AC current will be bypassed through the Capacitor to the Ground and we will obtain a Direct Current signal at the output.
Now you can use this DC current for various applications.

In the image, the moving arrows shows that they are AC and constant arrows shows the DC.

Introduction to Printed Circuit Board-Animation

PCB:

Electronic circuits in schools and industry are normally manufactured through the use of PCBs (Printed Circuit Boards). The boards are made from glass reinforced plastic with copper tracks in the place of wires. Components are fixed in position by drilling holes through the board, locating the components and then soldering them in place. The copper tracks link the components together forming a circuit.
                                         

The two diagrams below show the track side of a PCB (normally the underneath side) and the component side (normally the top side) of the same circuit. The relay and integrated circuit are ready to be placed in position and soldered.

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Animated circuit Board

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Single Side Band suppresed Carrier-Animation

SSB-SC:

This modulation modulation was the basis for all long distance telephone communications up until the last decade. It was called "L carrier." It consisted of groups of telephone conversations modulated on upper and/or lower sidebands of contiguous suppressed carriers. The groupings and sideband orientations (USB, LSB) supported hundreds and thousands of individual telephone conversations. 

SSB was used by the U.S. Air force's Strategic Air Command (SAC) to insure reliable communications between their nuclear bombers and NORAD. In fact, before satellite communications SSB-was the only reliable form of communications with the bombers. 

SSB-over-AM

 (1) Since the carrier is not transmitted, there is a reduction by 50% of the transmitted power (-3dBm).

 (2)Because in SSB, only one sideband is transmitted, there is a further reduction   by 50% in transmitted power (-3dBm (+) -3dBm = -6dBm).

  

(3) Finally, because only one sideband is received, the receiver's needed bandwidth is reduced by one          half--thus effectively reducing the required power by the transmitter another 50% (-3dBm (+) -3dBm (+) -3dBm = -9dBm).

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CLIPPER

CLIPPER CIRCUITS:

A clipper is a device designed to prevent the output of a circuit from exceeding a predetermined voltage level without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform.


Voltage clipping limits the voltage to a device without affecting the rest of the waveform

A clipping circuit consists of

• linear elements like resistors,
• non-linear elements like junction diodes or transistors.
• It does not contain energy-storage elements like capacitors. 

Clipping circuits are used to select for purposes of transmission, that part of a signal wave form which lies above or below a certain reference voltage level.

A clipper circuit can remove certain portions of an arbitrary waveform near the positive or negative peaks.

Clipping Circuits are also called as Slicers, amplitude selectors or limiters.

Two shunt diode clipper circuits

A one or two zener diodes are used to clip the voltage V_IN. In the first circuit, the voltage is clipped to the reverse breakdown voltage of the zener diode. The output voltage in the first circuit should also never be more negative than the diode's forward voltage.


In the second, the voltage in either direction is limited to the reverse breakdown voltage plus the voltage drop across one zener diode.

Clippers may be classified into two types based on the positioning of the diode.

• Series Clippers, where the diode is in series with the load resistance, and
• Shunt Clippers, where the diode in shunted across the load resistance.

Clippers may be classified based on the orientation of the diode.

• Positively Biased Diode Clipper
• Negatively Biased Diode Clipper

The signal can be clipped to between two levels by using both types of diode clippers in combination. This clipper is referred to as Combinational Diode Clipper or Two-Level Clippers

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7 Segment Display-animation

7 Segment Display:

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2D Convolution in Image Processing-Animation

2D Convolution (image processing):

-An image processing operation that is used to spatially filter an image. 

-A convolution is defined by a kernel that is a small matrix of fixed numbers (coefficients). 

-The size of the kernel, the numbers within it, and a single normalizer value define the operation that is applied to the image. 

-The kernel is applied to the image by placing the kernel over the image to be convolved and sliding it around to center it over every pixel in the original image. At each placement the numbers (pixel values) from the original image are multiplied by the kernel number that is currently aligned above it. 

-The sum of all these products is tabulated and divided by the kernel's normalizer. This result is placed into the new image at the position of the kernel's center. The kernel is translated to the next pixel position and the process repeats until all image pixels have been processed. 

-As an example, a 3x3 kernel holding all 1's with a normalizer of 9 performs a neighborhood averaging operation. Each pixel in the new image is the average of its 9 neighbors from the original.  

                                    

                                           2D Convolution on single Pixel, using 3 X 3 Kernel

                                              3x3 kernel requires 9 passes: normalizer = 9. 

  

-In a raster type image, only one Kernel coefficient operates during a single pass; after 9 passes, all 3x3 coefficients will have operated on the image. 

 

 

 

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Vertical Antenna-Animation

Vertical antenna:

First antenna is a 1/4 wavelength Vertical Dipole
Second antenna is a 1/2 wavelength Vertical Dipole (Collinear Array)

  1) a vertical antenna is omni-directional;

  2) the ground plane (reflection) creates virtual elements;

  3) and the effect of adding more elements (Collinear Array) on

     directional gain. --Less sky & ground waves.  

 As the second dipole is introduced, note the Flattening of the pattern, this is effectively doubling the Antenna Gain, i.e., reducing the skywave and groundwaves.

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Positive and Negative logic gates-Animation

Positive and Negative Logic gates:

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Capacitor and its application- Explanation & Animation

What is Capacitor?

A capacitor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field.  In its simplest form, a capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulating material called the dielectric.  Capacitance is directly proportional to the surface areas of the plates, and is inversely proportional to the plates' separation. 

  Applications:

  Some of the applications are given below:

                                                           A.C. & D.C. Coupling 
                                             Notice  Differentiation in the A.C. channel

                                                          Capacitor as a Coupling Element

  R.C. & D.C. Coupling 
Notice  Integration in the R.C. channelCapacitor as a Filtering Element

 Capacitors as Power Supply "Bypassing" ElementsCap

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Capacitor



  

JFET,MOSFET biasing-Explanatin and Animation

JFET

What if JFET?

In the junction FET (JFET), the gate material is made of the opposite polarity semiconductor to the channel material (for a P-channel FET the gate is made of N-type semiconductor material).  The gate-channel junction is similar to a diode's PN junction. As with the diode, current is high if the junction is forward biased and is extremely small when the junction is reverse biased.  The latter case is the way that JFETs are used, since any current in the gate is undesirable.  The magnitude of the reverse bias at the junction is proportional to the size of the electric field that 11 pinches" the channel.  Thus, the current in the channel is reduced for higher reverse gate bias voltage.  

working:

Because the gate-channel junction in a JFET is similar to a bipolar junction diode, this junction must never be forward biased, otherwise large currents will pass through the gate and into the channel.

N-channel and P-channel JFET:

  For an N-channel JFET, the gate must always be at a lower potential than the source (Vcs < 0).  The channel is as fully open as it can get when the gate and source voltages are equal (VGS = 0).  The prohibited condition is when VGS > 0.

 For P-channel JFETs these conditions are reversed (in normal operation VGS 0 and the prohibited condition is when VGS < 0).

 

MOSFET

 

What is MOSFET?

Placing an insulating layer between the gate and the channel allows for a wider range of control (gate) voltages and further decreases the gate current (and thus increases the device input resistance).  The insulator is typically made of an oxide (such as silicon dioxide, SiO₂), This type of device is called a metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

Other Name of MOSFET:

                      Insulated-gate FET (IGFET)

Operation:

 The substrate is often connected to the source internally.  The insulated gate is on the opposite side of the channel from the substrate . The bias voltage on the gate terminal either attracts or repels the majority carriers of the substrate across the PN junction with the channel.This narrows (depletes) or widens (enhances) the channel, respectively, as V_GS changes polarity.

N-channel and P-channel: 

For N-channel MOSFETs, positive gate voltages with respect to the substrate and the source (V_GS > 0) repel holes from the channel into the substrate, thereby widening the channel and decreasing channel resistance.  Conversely, V_GS < 0 causes holes to be attracted from the substrate, narrowing the channel and increasing the channel resistance.  Once again, the polarities discussed in this example are reversed for P-channel devices. The common abbreviation for an N-channel MOSFET is NMOS, and for a P-channel MOSFET, PMOS. 

Modes of Transistor:

A depletion mode, device (also called a normally on MOSFET) has a channel in resting state that gets smaller as a reverse bias s applied, this device conducts current with no bias applied.

An enhancement mode device (also called a normally off MOSFET) is built without a channel and does not conduct current when V_GS = 0; increasing forward bias forms a channel that conducts current

Diagram:

i)N-Channel MOSFET (Depletion Mode)

ii)N-Channel MOSFET (Enhancement Mode)

iii)N-Channel JFET

iv)NPN BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)  

 

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AIR CONDITIONER

An air conditioner is a home appliance system which is designed to dehumidify and extract heat from an area. The cooling is done using a simple refrigeration cycle.

Block Diagram of Refrigeration cycle 

REFRIGERATION CYCLE

 In the refrigeration cycle, a heat pump transfers heat from a lower-temperature heat source into a higher-temperature heat sink. Heat would naturally flow in the opposite direction. This is the most common type of air conditioning. A refrigerator works in much the same way, as it pumps the heat out of the interior and into the room in which it stands. The most common refrigeration cycle uses an electric motor to drive a compressor.

Simple  Refrigeration  cycle

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF AN AIR CONDITIONER

All air conditioning systems must have four basic elements:

Four Basic Elements of Air Conditioner

A quick Tour on LED-Animation

FLASHING LED:
The Flashing LED is not a normal LED. It has a light emitting semiconductor inside the body and it also contains a microchip flasher circuit and a current limiting resistor so the LED can be connected directly to a 5v to 9v supply. It flashes about once per second.

 

LED working:

 

When the switch is closed,the LED glows.Current Limiting Resistor is used to avoid the excess current to the LED. 

How to get correct brightness on LED? 

 

How LED gets damaged?

By connecting in a wrong way..

  

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Interesting Animations to Explain Complex machines

How Sewing Machine Works?

 Second Hand Movement to control the clock:

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Induction motor-animation

Wound Rotor Induction Motor:

The 3-phase stator is represented by 3 concentrated coils displaced 120^o from each other. The wound rotor is also represented by 3 concentrated coils and it is rotating at the speed n=0.8 pu. With balanced 3-phase sinusoidal currents in the stator coils, a rotating magnetic field at 1.00 pu speed is established (represented by the yellow space vector) which overtakes the rotor at slip speed (1-n), thereby inducing in the rotor coils slip-frequency voltages and corresponding currents

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DC Machine-Animation

DC Machine:

The action of the commutator is to produce a fixed spatial distribution of current directions in the armature conductors independent of shaft rotation. The field created by these currents (armature reaction) is horizontally directed and is represented by the space vector I_a. The field established by the excitation of the stator poles is directed along the vertical axis and is represented by the space vector  λ_f . The electromagnetic torque may be expressed as T_e = k( I_a x λ_f  ) .

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Three phase inverter-Animation

Three Phase Inverter:

The topology of a three-phase inverter consists of  3 legs; each leg includes a switch in either the up or down position. The resulting eight possible switching configurations give rise to 6 active voltage space vectors and 2 zero vectors. The animation shows a specific sequencing of the 8 states where the active vectors rotate in discrete 60^o steps.

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Ethernet Bus-Animation

 Ethernet Bus:

 

This is a coax based Ethernet network where all machines are daisy chained using RG58 coaxial cable (sometime referred to as Thin Ethernet or Thin-net).

Machine 2 wants to send a message to machine 4, but first it 'listens' to make sure no one else is using the network.

Collision :

This animation starts with machine 2 and machine 5 both trying to transmit simultaneously.

The resulting collision destroys both signals and each machine knows this has happened because they do not 'hear' their own transmission within a given period of time (this time period is the propagation delay and is equivalent to the time it takes for a signal to travel to the furthest part of the network and back again).

Using Hub:

 

An Ethernet hub changes the topology from a 'bus' to a 'star wired bus', here's how it works.

Again, machine 1 is transmitting data to machine 4, but this time the signal travels in and out of the hub to each of the other machines.

As you can see, it is still possible for collisions to occur but hubs have the advantage of centralised wiring, and they can automatically bypass any ports that are disconnected or have a cabling fault. This makes the network much more fault tolerant than a coax based system where disconnecting a single connection will bring the whole network down.

Using Switch: 

 To overcome the problem of collisions and other effects on network speed, a switch is used.

With a switch, machines can transmit simultaneously, in this case 1 & 5 first, and then 2 & 4. As you can see, the switch reads the destination addresses and 'switches' the signals directly to the recipients without broadcasting to all of the machines on the network.

This 'point to point' switching alleviates the problems associated with collisions and considerably improves network speed. 

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Token Ring and Token Bus-Working Animation

Token Ring

At the start, a free Token is circulating on the ring, this is a data frame which to all intents and purposes is an empty vessel for transporting data. To use the network, a machine first has to capture the free Token and replace the data with its own message.

In the example above, machine 1 wants to send some data to machine 4, so it first has to capture the free Token. It then writes its data and the recipient's address onto the Token (represented by the yellow flashing screen).

The packet of data is then sent to machine 2 who reads the address, realizes it is not its own, so passes it on to machine 3. Machine 3 does the same and passes the Token on to machine 4.

This time it is the correct address and so number 4 reads the message (represented by the yellow flashing screen). It cannot, however, release a free Token on to the ring, it must first send the message back to number 1 with an acknowledgement to say that it has received the data (represented by the purple flashing screen).

The receipt is then sent to machine 5 who checks the address, realizes that it is not its own and so forwards it on to the next machine in the ring, number 6.

Machine 6 does the same and forwards the data to number 1, who sent the original message.

 

 Token Bus

A Token Ring hub simply changes the topology from a physical ring to a star wired ring. The Token still circulates around the network and is still controlled in the same manner, however, using a hub or a switch greatly improves reliability because the hub can automatically bypass any ports that are disconnected or have a cabling fault.

  

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Electronics Animations

Moving Images makes the concepts more understandable.
We need teachers, who are ready to use the web for teaching the fundamentals of electronics.

Another fantastic collection of animations for electronics concepts is available here.

Please CLICK HERE view the Animations.

(Java Applet is required to view the contents)

Electric motor and generator-Basic working Animations

Click below to view..
electric motors animation



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FM modulator-Animation

FM Modulator
     frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its instantaneous frequency.

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Sine Wave generation in oscilloscope-Animation

  

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